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Single-centre, retrospective laboratory surveillance of bacterial isolates with descriptive epidemiology and resistance patterns; provides local data to guide therapy but lacks clinical outcomes, prospective enrolment, or comparison groups.
Single-centre retrospective laboratory surveillance study describing bacterial distribution and resistance patterns without intervention, comparator, or hypothesis testing; useful for local epidemiology but limited generalizability and no causal inference.
A narrative review synthesizing emerging preclinical and associative clinical evidence for a putative gut–prostate axis in BPH, acknowledging that current evidence remains largely mechanistic and associative with few direct human studies.
A single case report describing temporal association between SGLT2 inhibition, anatomic variants, and multidrug-resistant UTI; the authors explicitly state causality is unproven and the narrative is hypothesis-generating.
Large descriptive epidemiologic study using administrative data with no comparator or intervention; provides prevalence trends and demographic patterns but lacks analytical depth, causal inference, or clinical outcomes.
A policy brief presenting expert recommendations for managing infections in cancer patients amid antimicrobial resistance in sub-Saharan Africa, informed by institutional microbiological data but not a primary research study.
Single-centre retrospective observational study of modest size without comparator, describing testing and prescribing practices; generates actionable findings about stewardship but lacks the design or sample size to confirm causation or quantify intervention benefit.
A single-centre before-after study with modest sample size and surrogate endpoints (prescribing quality, culture rates) shows meaningful improvements in antimicrobial stewardship practice, but lacks a concurrent control and hard clinical outcomes.