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International Journal of Medical Science in Clinical Research and Review
Single-centre, uncontrolled observational study in a small sample (n=50) describing prevalence and associations without a comparator group, establishing feasibility but requiring confirmation in larger, comparative designs.
A hypothesis-generating, cross-sectional clustering study that identifies novel sub-phenotypes but lacks prospective validation, hard clinical outcomes, or causal evidence to guide clinical practice.
International Journal of Medical Science in Clinical Research and Review
Single-centre observational study with modest sample size (n=50) and cross-sectional design, showing associations between metabolic syndrome and hepatic steatosis in postmenopausal women but lacking a comparator group and unable to establish causation.
Cross-sectional survey with very small biological subsample (n=64) and surrogate endpoints; establishes prevalence estimates but lacks comparator group design and cannot determine causation or temporal relationships.
Cross-sectional observational study with clear associations between inflammatory biomarkers and obesity in a defined population, but cross-sectional design precludes causal inference and generalizability beyond Southwest Nigeria is uncertain.
Single-centre, cross-sectional descriptive survey of 39 faculty members with no control group, reporting prevalence of metabolic risk factors and glycemic abnormalities without comparative or causal inference.
Cross-sectional single-center study without intervention showing associations between metabolic markers and KOA severity; age alone predicts severity independently, limiting the metabolic findings' causal interpretation.
Cross-sectional study showing NC as an independent predictor of diabetes and dyslipidaemia with moderate discriminatory ability (AUC 0.63), but limited by observational design and modest effect sizes that do not establish clinical utility.