Early-stage preclinical work demonstrating proof-of-concept in cell and animal models; no human data, surrogate endpoints only, and no direct clinical comparator.
This is a narrative review article presenting conceptual advantages and potential applications of DNA nanostructures against pathogens, with no primary empirical data, effect sizes, or clinical outcomes reported.
Sound preclinical study with in vitro biofilm efficacy and in vivo proof-of-concept in a rat caries model, but limited to animal data and lacks human clinical validation.
Proof-of-concept study in cell culture and larval models demonstrating engineered EV-mediated delivery of a peptidoglycan hydrolase; lacks mammalian efficacy data, toxicity assessment, and clinical translation pathway.